It’s Always Bigger in Texas: A Prospectus

Abstract of It’s Always Bigger in Texas: The Collapse of the Southwest Conference and its Lasting Effects on College Football, A Prospectus

The Southwest Conference (SWC) was the largest Texas centric organization to exist in collegiate athletics. The conglomeration included football powerhouses such as the University of Texas and Texas A&M University. The conference was in existence from 1914 until 1995. The conference dominated all of college football for much of its 81-year tenure. Nevertheless, the SWC collapsed during the first major conference realignment in the modern era of college football. The impact of media rights and the lack of racial integration in the SWC led to its demise. The historic proliferation of media outlets is frequently overlooked in research. This paper follows the historical development of college football and its early dominance in Texas. This paper examines the lifespan of the SWC. Cited research correlates specific economic issues which initially provided justification for a regional conference, but ultimately led to its fall. The paper also explores how the lack of racial integration affected the perception and talent pull of the conference. The SWC’s regionality and its unwillingness to adopt early segregation policies caused the SWC to falter. A combined corpus of student newspapers, staff interviews, alumni magazines, and media reports state the rise and fall of the conference. The paper also includes the author’s current knowledge of college football and conference alignments and their relevance to the SWC. The fall of the SWC was a historic precursor to the current conference realignment driven by the emphasis on media rights. This new focus on conference restructuring has impacted every “power” conference. These major conferences have expanded their membership to include a nationwide footprint and have focused on profitability from media sources instead of the historic cornerstones of collegiate sports, like student athletes and gameday traditions.

Historical Narrative:

            Every fall, college football signals the clash of athletic giants who compete to increase school pride and win championships. From its humble begins in the Northeastern United States to its now colossal Division I programs, college football has morphed into an extremely lucrative enterprise. Universities and media outlets have benefited from this development. The negative impact of these revenue-driven institutions has adversely affected several regional conferences.[1] The expansion of media markets and unsatiable greed in college football programs led to the collapse of the Southwest Conference (SWC).

            On a windy day on November 6, 1869, Princeton University’s 25-man team traveled by train to Rutgers University to compete in the first intercollegiate college football contest. The two squads battled on a field between Sicard Street and College Avenue on the southern corner of the campus.[2] With one hundred spectators in attendance, the Rutgers Queensmen defeated the Princeton Tigers by a score of six to four. The historic match was a result of the careful planning of William S. Gummere and William J. Leggett, the initial captains of Princeton and Rutgers football teams, respectively. The first game was closer to rugby than modern football. Without regulations, the game was considerably more dangerous and violent.[3] Nevertheless, the game promoted chivalry and masculine etiquette. A reporter from Rutgers’ Targrum commented, “After the match, the players had an amicable ‘feed’ together, and at 8 o’clock our guests went home in good, high spirits.”[4]

The conclusion of the first game showed that intercollegiate competition was possible. Rutgers and Princeton football teams would play once more in November, 1869 before the faculty of both schools deemed the game too violent. Due to these contests being widely publicized across Ivy League universities, the game continued to gain popularity. In 1870, Rutgers and Columbia football teams defied their faculties direction and competed on the same field in New Brunswick, New Jersey. The popularity of the game was on the rise, as ballads remembering the contest circulated in the November edition of The Targrum. A ballad, known as The Noble Game, was on the front page of the publication. The ballad comically criticized the brutality of the game by recalling the severe injuries suffered by young men playing the game. It also fondly recalled the gameday festivities between students. A ballad recalling the Columbia versus Rutgers game declared, “and now the game is ended, Rutgers laurels are mended, Columbia is offended.”[5] These same teams would compete again two years later.

In 1873, captains of four competitive teams met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in Manhattan, New York to establish the first rules of intercollegiate football. The rules aimed to reduce the inconsistency in play and protect players. Madison Ball representing Rutgers University, William S. Halstead representing Yale University, Cyrus O. Dershimer representing Princeton University, and Charles King representing Columbia University gathered in the ornately decorated dining hall of the hotel. The captains of the four institutions agreed to play on a 400 x 250-foot field where players could only kick the ball. The meeting also established the Intercollegiate Football Association (IFA). Henry R. Grant, captain of Harvard’s football team, did not attend the meeting. After attempting to play under the new rules, Grant deemed the rules “hopeless” and began playing under Boston Rules. Boston Rules allowed players to carry the football.

Eventually, the lack of rule consistency across all institutions forced another IFA summit in 1880. Walter Camp, head coach of Yale’s football club, spearheaded the summit between the twelve members of the IFA to clearly outline the rules of college football. Camp was one of college football’s inaugural star players. He competed for Yale throughout his college tenure. In 1888, Camp was named Yale’s head coach. One of his first actions was establishing a meeting between the other Ivy institutions to discuss rigid rules for football games.[6] Camp’s additions to the game revolutionized it in several distinct ways. Camp’s innovations created a distinction between English and American football.[7] One of the numerous versions of early football forced players to only use their feet, heads, and hands to progress the ball. Players scored by kicking the ball through a goal.[8] Camp preferred the running style of football which allowed players to carry the ball to the goal line. He was also responsible for establishing the line of scrimmage, offsides, and downs. Another of Camp’s important contributions was to specify player positions on the team. In particular, he detailed the roles of quarterback and center. He also determined that eleven players on offense and defense were the optimum number of participants for each play. This rule change provided further safety for players and reduced the amount of unnecessary “scrums.”[9] Camp’s summit essentially allowed the twelve members to act as the first college athletic conference.

Walter Camp’s innovations in collegiate football began to spread westward soon after the 1880 IFA meeting. The presidents of several midwestern higher education institutions gathered in 1895 in Chicago to form the first official conference. The Western Conference, nicknamed the Big Ten, included the University of Illinois, the University of Chicago, the University of Minnesota, Northwestern University, the University of Purdue, and the University of Wisconsin. The hallmark of the assembly was their statement on the importance of amateurism. The members asserted the following statement regarding the importance of preserving amateurism within the Western Conference:

“College and university authorities [shall] put forth every practicable effort to prevent professionalism of every form in intercollegiate athletic games and to make every game an honorable contest of athletic skill by excluding from participation all persons not regularly enrolled as students, doing full work as such.”[10]

 The establishment of amateurism launched the ideology behind the student-athlete. The inception of student-athletes appeased critics of college football and allowed for the expansion of football to other educational institutions.[11] The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was founded on March 31, 1906. Originally, the association was known as the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) in response to concerns over the safety of college football. President Theodore Roosevelt motivated the reforms after a series of serious injuries and deaths in college football games. One of the victims of these injuries was his son, Theodore Roosevelt Jr. He sustained serious injuries during his first year on the Harvard football squad. The IAAUS officially became the NCAA in 1910.[12] This organization became pivotal in the expansion of the student-athlete concept but also gained power and influence over most aspects of the game and its culture.

Football was first played in Texas in 1893 in a competition between the University of Texas and Dallas University. The game was played on Thanksgiving Day at the Dallas Exhibition Grounds. On a muddy field, Texas’ football club decisively defeated their opponent eighteen to sixteen.[13] Similar to other early football programs, Texas lacked consistency until the hiring of L. Theo Bellmont in 1913. He was hired as the inaugural Director of Physical Training, acting as the school’s first athletic director.[14] Bellmont, a Rochester, New York native and University of Tennessee alum, served as the YMCA director for the city of Houston prior to moving to Austin. Bellmont’s time living in New York and working with the YMCA provided him with significant exposure to college athletics. He developed an extensive knowledge of college football and basketball. Bellmont served as Texas’ fifth men’s basketball coach in 1914.[15] Bellmont also introduced weight training to the struggling athletic department during his first years. Within three years, Bellmont had established a strong athletic department. His emphasis on football and basketball galvanized the athletic department as the central focus of the Texas campus. Bellmont brought the University’s athletic department out of debt. However, his most notable contribution came in 1915 when he led a campaign to establish the SWC.[16]

When Bellmont inherited Texas’ program, he recognized the need for an organized athletics conference. On December 8, 1914, Bellmont gathered athletic directors from Texas A&M, Baylor University, Rice University, the University of Arkansas, the University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma A&M, and Southwestern University. [17] By 1914, these teams had competed on an ad hoc basis for several years. The institutions met in Dallas’ luxurious Adolphus Hotel due to its central location to all of the interested universities. Bellmont’s meeting led to these schools forming the Southwest Intercollegiate Athletic Conference.[18] Bellmont pitched the formation of the conference to resolve problems within each school’s athletic programs. His plan also increased regulations, promoted cost effective scheduling, and generated a profitable collegiate sports market.[19] While the following schools were not in attendance at Bellmont’s summit, they joined the SWC at a later date: Southern Methodist University (SMU) (1918), Texas Christian University (TCU) (1923), Texas Tech (1958), and University of Houston (1972).[20]

Bellmont’s regional focus allowed for universities to cut travel expenses for their football clubs. During the early era of college football, teams would travel by bus or train for away competitions. The focus on developing a regional conference allowed for universities to have less travel time for competitions. For example, Bellmont’s Longhorns traveled regularly to Missouri in an early rivalry game against the Tigers. The trip would take more than a day of travel by train for the visiting team. With the establishment of the SWC, Texas’ longest trip was to the University of Arkansas. This trip could be accomplished in less than a day by either bus or train. The reduction in travel expenses meant that the funds could be used elsewhere.[21] Lesser distance also allowed fans to travel to the games. The increased fan base resulted in more profitability for the programs. It also led to the construction of sizeable venues that could seat the burgeoning spectatorship of college football.[22]

By the 1910’s, the popularity of college football had escalated significantly. Schools needed to manufacture special venues where football could be played and watched. Most stadiums featured a football field within an oval running track. In 1923, Bellmont approved construction of a concrete, permanent stadium solely for the use of football. Bellmont specifically cited the rise in football popularity as the need for the genesis stadium. Bellmont raised two hundred seventy-five thousand dollars in nine months to construct the Longhorns’ new home stadium, War Memorial Stadium. The venue honored World War I veterans who had attended the University of Texas. Texas dedicated the new stadium on November 24, 1924, during a game against the Texas A&M Aggies. The new stadium was the largest in the state, holding twenty-seven thousand fans in the concrete stands. Since the stadium was continually filled to capacity, Bellmont also utilized temporary bleachers to increase the spectator capacity to approximately thirty-five thousand fans.[23]

War Memorial Stadium served as an inspiration in establishing larger capacity stadiums in the SWC. In 1929, Kyle Field, a concrete stadium, was erected in College Station, Texas to create a permanent setting for Texas A&M (A&M) football. The new stadium cost three hundred sixty-five thousand dollars to build and had a seating capacity of thirty-two thousand eight hundred ninety spectators. The stadium was the largest football venue in the SWC and in the state of Texas. The field was named after alumnus Edwin “E.J.” Kyle. Kyle played a pivotal role in supporting the Aggies.[24] The construction of Kyle Field was the beginning of the arms race for the stadiums in the SWC. The stadium arms race is defined as the process of costly upgrades to collegiate sports facilities to increase fan capacity and generate more revenue.[25] Texas and Texas A&M continued the stadium arms race against each other through the tenure of the conference.

In addition to people’s interest in stadiums, media played an even greater role in the rising popularity of football. Similar to the expansion of football in the Northeast, newspaper reporting was a primary influence in the proliferation of football across the SWC and beyond. The rise in the circulation of newspapers correlated to the increased migration to Texas. In 1900, the population of Texas was approximately three million people.[26] By 1920, the population had grown to 4.6 million.[27] Student newspapers were crucial to spreading the sport across college campuses. They provided in depth coverage about the game of football. Newspapers were also a source of educational instruction about how the game was played. For example, in 1894, The Battalion, Texas A&M’s student publication, covered their upcoming contest with Texas in detail. The article listed positions and rules, allowing students to connect with the team. Approximately five hundred students attended A&M during 1894. Thus, the publication would have reached a small population.[28]

Urban newspapers had a larger circulation than college periodicals. These city newspapers were a greater influence of the spread of college football. The Houston Post, founded in 1880, was one of the inaugural newspapers to publish a college football section in their periodical. On November 27, 1903, the Post covered a game featuring Baylor University and TCU. The page also included summaries from several other games. The circulation of the Post during the early 1900’s was approximately fourteen thousand two hundred seven copies per day. This widespread coverage allowed urban residents to follow college football teams.

Radio was the next form of media to catapult the expansion of the SWC. The Humble Radio Network, owned by the Humble Oil and Field Company, was the flagship network for the SWC. While broadcasting on the network, Kern Tips, a graduate of both Rice University and Texas A&M, became the “Voice of the SWC”. Tips began his SWC radio career in 1935 as the first radio broadcaster of SWC football. He was known for his colorful idioms to illustrate football plays for his listeners. Radio’s regional capacity allowed Tips to become a household name in Texas. His charismatic broadcasting style gained mass listenership and grew the fan base of the SWC.[29]

The dawn of broadcast television exponentially increased the popularity of the SWC. In 1951, only three major television networks existed. The NCAA assumed control of college football television rights. The NCAA initially exercised control over media operations for football in order to preserve the amateur status of student-athletes, to sustain control over college sports, and to ensure that revenue from media deals supported college programs rather than individual athletes or commercial interests. The NCAA aimed to make certain that football players maintained their amateur status because professionalization could lead to exploitation. By controlling media rights, the NCAA could limit the financial influence of outside commercial parties.[30] In 1952, the NCAA permitted the television broadcast of one national game per weekend. The first nationally televised SWC contest was between TCU and Kansas University in a non-conference game on September 20, 1952. The NCAA would eventually expand their television policy in 1955 to include five weeks of regional games and eight weeks of national games. By controlling television rights, the NCAA sought to distribute media revenue more equally across its member schools, creating a top-down revenue stream that would benefit both large and smaller programs. In theory, this practice would raise competitive balance across the collegiate league. The NCAA’s control over media rights, in theory, was also an attempt to ensure that college football’s image and values aligned with the goals of educational institutions. These goals were centered on promoting the academic aspect of student-athletes while sponsoring the NCAA's brand.

Despite the altruistic intentions of the NCAA, Division I universities received additional television revenue from the NCAA’s expanded plan. Several institutions challenged the NCAA and pursued the ability to negotiate their own broadcasting deals. Members from the SWC, the Southeastern Conference (SEC), the Big XII, the Big Ten, the Western Athletic Conference (WAC), the Atlantic Coastal Conference (ACC), the PAC 8, and independents, such as the University of Notre Dame, Penn State University, and the University of Pittsburgh, assembled in 1976 to strategize methods to change the NCAA’s broadcast restrictions. These institutions recognized the opportunity to increase their program’s profitability by circumventing the NCAA and removing NCAA controls of television broadcast rights. By December, 1976, the delegates wrote the Articles of Association that led to the formation of the College Football Association (CFA).

The CFA pitched itself as a conglomerate interested in lobbying the NCAA. Two problematic issues emerged in the early days of the CFA. First, the two most prominent conferences, the Big Ten and the PAC 8, did not join the ranks of the CFA. They argued that their lack of participation was due to their interest in keeping the focus on academics and not athletics. These conferences actually did not join the CFA because they held the majority of the power within the NCAA.

The second issue for the CFA was dealing with the NCAA’s executive director, Walter Byers. In 1977, Byers used his authority to acquire twenty-nine million dollars in football television fees for the NCAA. Additionally, he purposefully divided Division I schools into two separate divisions.[31] Ultimately, he was attempting to appease the larger universities by providing them with more broadcast opportunities while still maintaining the NCAA’s media monopoly. The CFA combatted Byers’ control with the criticism that viewership was declining. They noted that the professional National Football League ratings were increasing while NCAA contracts went from a sixty-six present rating in 1976 to a fifty-five percent in 1979. By 1981, the CFA attempted to change NCAA football broadcast regulations through discussions with NBC, ABC, CBS, and ESPN. Byers thwarted their efforts by negotiating contracts with CBS, ABC, and the Turner Cable Network. He also increased the number of times a school could be featured on a broadcast from two to three per season.

The CFA responded by signing a four year, one hundred eighty million dollar contract with NBC in 1981. NBC was excluded from Byers’ television deal that same year. NBC’s terms with the CFA allowed for each member to be guaranteed seven broadcast appearances every two years. In addition, NBC would pay the CFA’s members a million dollars for their partnership. Byers threatened to expel the CFA members from the NCAA as a means to nullify the deal. However, his threat only emboldened several CFA members.[32]

The University of Oklahoma, Georgia, and Texas all filed lawsuits against the NCAA, stating that “the National Collegiate Athletic Association has unreasonably restrained trade in the televising of college football games.”[33] Texas filed their case in the Texas State Court. The University of Oklahoma and the University of Georgia joined forces, filing their case in the district court of Oklahoma City. Although Texas’ court case was dropped, the combined force of Oklahoma and Georgia allowed for the CFA to break free from the NCAA’s tyrannical media policies. On June 27, 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court sided with the Board of Regents of Oklahoma after the NCAA had appealed the decision to the higher court. In a 7-2 decision, the Supreme Court agreed with Oklahoma. Justice John Paul Stevens asserted:  

“[The NCAA’s restraints] of television rights available for sale, the challenged practices create a limitation on output; our [precedent] cases have held that such limitations are unreasonable restraints of trade.”[34]

The decision contended that the NCAA had violated Sherman Anti-Trust laws and allowed institutions to regulate their media deals. The decision was a resounding victory for the CFA.

The expected windfall of money from television rights was not immediately realized. The first CFA negotiated contract with NBC was four million dollars less than what NBC had negotiated with the NCAA. Television networks seemed to have the upper hand in negotiating television deals with universities. For example, Oklahoma’s broadcast revenue dropped by over a half million dollars following the 1984 court decision. Another unforeseen issue was resolving contract differences between schools that were playing each other and had obtained different media deals independent of one another. Universities were able to negotiate independent contracts which weakened the CFA as an organization. Ironically, the CFA attempted to regulate television contracts similar to the NCAA. The floodgates of profitability for independent programs were flung wide open now. The fallout from the historic 1984 court case forever changed the course of televised college football.[35]

The redistribution of media rights created significant challenges to the regionally focused SWC. The expansion of ESPN and the increase of cable television outlets accelerated universities’ clamber for television revenue. Despite a nationwide media market expansion, the SWC had limited national exposure. Following the 1984 court case, the SWC consisted of nine institutions. Eight of these universities were located within the state of Texas. The only out-of-state school was the University of Arkansas. Thus, the Little Rock-Pine Bluff media market was the only source of media revenue outside the state of Texas.[36] In addition to limited media markets, several SWC institutions were put on probation for NCAA violations. Several of these NCAA sanctions prohibited the violators from broadcasting their contests.[37]

The SWC regional footprint was only one factor that contributed to the collapse of the conference. Another factor that eventually contributed to the demise of the SWC was the involvement of oil tycoons. In May 1923, oil was discovered in a field owned by the University of Texas. The Permanent University Fund was an account established for the purpose of holding natural gas and oil royalties. State legislatures divided the annual interest of the fund between two institutions, the University of Texas and Texas A&M.[38] None of the other SWC institutions received revenue from this fund. While this windfall of funds enabled Texas and Texas A&M to have a state funded advantage, their actions created a pushback from other alumni bodies. Both TCU and SMU alumni began significantly boosting their school’s endowment funds through gratuitous donations. Many of these boosters earned fortunes through the oil boon.[39] One of these boosters was J. Curtis Sanford. Sanford earned a fortune brokering oil deals within West Texas. In 1936, the Dallas oilman and SMU booster, traveled to Pasadena, California to watch SMU play Stanford in the Rose Bowl. His experience in California inspired him to create a post-season college football exhibition game in Dallas. He garnered support for his idea from several organizers of the Texas State Fair and the Texas Exhibition centennial.[40] In 1937, Sanford sponsored the post-season contest at Fair Park stadium. The stadium would later be renamed to the Cotton Bowl. The game quickly became a staple of the SWC and showcased the might of oilmen within the conference.[41]

Hugh Roy Cullen was another major oilman within the SWC. Cullen was instrumental in the establishment of oil tycoons within Houston. He founded several oil organizations, including the Humble Oil Company. His mass fortune from his oil discoveries gave the University of Houston its first large donation.[42] In the 1930s, Cullen provided the university with eleven million dollars to construct the first building on Houston’s campus.[43] In addition to boosting Houston, Cullen’s promotion of the SWC through the Humble Radio network allowed for the conference to become a regional powerhouse.[44]

Oilmen’s philanthropy supported the rise of SWC programs across Texas for many decades. In 1967, William Clements, a prominent oilman, politician, and philanthropist became the chairman of the Board of Governors at SMU. The Board of Governors was a group of boosters who advised the University and SMU’s Board of Trustees on certain actions. This encouragement was often backed through significant funding. Oftentimes, these boosters focused on athletic success at the University. Sally Jenkins, a reporter for Sports Illustrated, asserted in a 1992 publication that “from 1970 to 1986, SMU's endowment jumped from $26.7 million to $282.1 million, coinciding with the Mustangs climb to national football prominence.”[45] This prominence was a result of oilmen funds being used illegally for recruiting purposes.[46]

The oilmen’s extravagant support of SMU and other SWC powerhouses was stymied with the oil recessions of the late 1970’s and 1980’s. After fifty years of continuous growth, the Texas oil companies began operating at a loss.[47] The loss was caused by the United States’ dependency on foreign oil. The U.S. began utilizing oil from the Middle East because of less expensive production costs. In 1981, Texan oil was priced at thirty-four dollars a barrel. By 1986, the price of a barrel of oil was less than 10 dollars. Texas had an unemployment rate of ten percent which correlated directly to more than half of Texas’ oil rigs being closed. The closures of oil rigs within the state would continue into the 1990’s, only accounting for a quarter of the operational rigs in 1981.[48] The collapse of the oil market was also aided by the closing of the First National Bank of Midland, the largest independent bank in the United States.[49] As a result, SWC institutions lost the support of many boosters.

The oil collapse happened simultaneously with the SWC addressing multiple NCAA infractions. In the mid-1980’s, six of the nine conference members committed serious NCAA recruiting infractions. SMU was the first SWC school to be punished for their recruiting violations. In 1985, the Mustangs faced NCAA investigations after unprecedented success within the conference. The investigation of the SMU’s football program was encouraged by other SWC institutions. They were skeptical of SMU’s newfound success.[50] The NCAA investigation discovered that SMU was paying several recruits from a discretionary fund in order to attract highly talented players. Several of these players, including future Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee Eric Dickerson, were from the Dallas-Fort Worth area. The scheme was hatched by the Board of Governors and spearheaded by their chairman, William “Bill” Clements. The discovery of the 1985 scandal resulted in the NCAA placing a postseason ban on the Mustangs. The NCAA also stripped the program of half of its football related scholarships.[51] Although the NCAA had discovered the scandal, the situation grew more despondent in 1987.

In 1986, David Stanley, a former SMU football player, cited the Board of Governors for continuing to pay players after the NCAA sanctions. Stanley’s testimony instantly attracted the attention of the NCAA and SMU.[52] Following a joint investigation, the NCAA and SMU found that Clements had ordered the Board to continue to pay the players even after the 1985 sanctions. Clements, the Governor of Texas, admitted to his acts in a statement. “The commitments had been made. And in the interest of the institution, the boys, their families, and to comply with the NCAA, that that program would be phased out.”[53] The shocking discovery uncovered by the joint investigation resulted in the NCAA handing SMU’s football program its harshest penalty. This penalty was officially classified as the “Repeat Violator Rule.” However, the penalty is commonly known in the sports community as the “Death Penalty.” The NCAA barred the Mustangs from competing in the 1987 season. They also banned SMU games from being broadcast on television for the following two years, shortened their season to seven games, and crippled their football scholarship program.[54] The university administration added additional sanctions onto the program and ultimately terminated football operations in 1988. The penalties severely damaged the program and hurt the legitimacy of the SWC.[55] The SMU football scandal, now known as “Ponygate,” began a landslide of cheating violations that continued to cripple the conference.[56]

SMU’s rival, TCU, also found itself facing NCAA sanctions for recruitment violations. The violations were discovered by TCU’s head coach, Jim Wacker. Following the news of SMU’s 1985 scandal, Coach Wacker called a team meeting to congratulate his squad for “building a great program… [through] honesty and integrity.”[57] Ironically, a player on the TCU football team instantly spoke to the coach, admitting that he had received cash payments for playing for the Horned Frogs. The player revealed that he and six other players had received illegal payments from TCU’s booster organization.[58] One of these boosters was Dick Lowe, a prominent oilman and alumnus of TCU. He was the primary violator of the scandal, as he paid players “from his wallet.”[59] Wacker immediately dismissed the seven players from the team and reported the situation to the University. Although Wacker’s actions and transparency was praised, TCU faced serious penalties. The NCAA prohibited the Frogs from competing in postseason play from 1986 until 1988.[60] Additionally, the University had to forfeit all television revenue earned during their cheating tenure. The NCAA also forced TCU to only provide ten scholarships to incoming football recruits.[61] Unlike SMU, TCU’s and Wacker’s instant transparency saved the football program from even further damage. Nevertheless, the TCU violation continued to undermine the SWC’s reputation.

In 1987, Texas, Texas A&M, and Texas Tech received probations from the NCAA for recruitment violations. The Longhorns had several minor infractions. These included small amount of discretionary funds, guaranteed employment in alumnus businesses, and access to a free car. All of these violations were committed under Head Coach David McWilliams’ knowledge. The infractions resulted in the NCAA placing a one-year postseason ban on the Horns.[62] Meanwhile, Texas A&M received a two-year probation from postseason play for committing twenty-five rule violations. These included “improper contact with recruits” and providing benefits for their players.[63] Texas Tech was also placed on probation after committing similar recruiting violations.[64]

The final major cheating scandal within the SWC occurred in 1988 with the University of Houston. The Cougars were placed on three-year probation in 1988 and were not permitted to compete for SWC titles until 1991. The NCAA also levied a two-year bowl ban and a single year television ban on the program. Moreover, the NCAA stripped the Cougars of ten football scholarships during their three-year probation. The punishment was the result of more than two hundred fifty recruiting violations committed between 1984 and 1987. The mastermind behind these violations was Bill Yeoman. Yeoman had been the head coach of Houston football since 1962. He had previously violated NCAA rules twice prior to the 1988 situation. He was reported to pay players up front from inside his office. The violations forced Yeoman to retire in 1986 as the Cougars winningest football coach.[65]

The significant violations of the majority of SWC teams severely damaged the league’s reputation and media revenue. The NCAA enforced television blackouts resulted in teams making a fraction of their predicted media revenue. Several of the NCAA reparations included schools forfeiting past media funds, too. These factors caused the conference to have inferior media deals compared to other, nearby power conferences. The struggling, rule abiding institutions began taking a keen interest in other conferences with successful media deals.[66] The University of Arkansas, the only school outside of Texas, gained interest in leaving the conference due to the poor media revenue and the extensive NCAA infractions of its fellow SWC members. During this same time, the Southeastern Conference (SEC) was gaining power due to its lucrative broadcasting deals. The SEC was looking to add other large public programs with high profile television viewership. The University of Arkansas fit the needs of the SEC’s expanding market. Meanwhile, Arkansas could escape the collapsing SWC and gain more revenue through the SEC’s successful media deals. In 1990, Frank Broyle, the Athletic Director at Arkansas, announced the departure of the Razorbacks from the SWC.[67] The Hogs joined the SEC along with the University of South Carolina and began playing SEC opponents in 1991.[68] This departure of Arkansas from the SWC was a devastating blow to the Conference.[69]

The exodus of Arkansas encouraged the other powerhouse intuitions, namely Texas and Texas A&M, to seek other options. These two behemoth football programs gained the most revenue from the SWC’s media profits and impeded the growth of smaller programs.[70] Nevertheless, the Horns and Aggies were interested in outside options. In 1990, the SEC invited both Texas and Texas A&M to join their conference. The motivation behind their invitation was to grow revenue streams and increase profitability.[71] The inclusion of the two universities would encapsulate the largest media markets in the region – Dallas, San Antonio, and Houston.[72] Despite Texas and Texas A&M’s interest, Texas state legislatures held both institutions hostage to the SWC by threatening to cut their state provided funding. The SWC was viewed as a state asset by several state officials. Gib Lewis, Speaker of the House and TCU alum, threatened the schools by asserting, “If they want to leave the SWC, we can cut their funds with one vote. One simple vote.”[73] Texas Athletic Director, DeLoss Dodds, knew that the future of the large public universities in Texas was joining a power conference. He predicted that the marketplace would determine the respective conference each institution would join.[74]

Dodds’ predictions were accurate. As television markets expanded, larger SWC schools needed to join power conferences to regain lost revenue and increase profitability. In 1994, Texas, Texas A&M, Texas Tech and Baylor received invitations from the Big VIII to leave the SWC.[75] The universities had met several times to discuss their future role within college football. Since the mid 1980’s, these universities had separated themselves from the smaller schools through separate media plans. Texas A&M’s head football coach, Jackie Sherrill, began the separation during a 1984 meeting by negotiating radio media deals. Jim Host, the director of the SWC Radio Network, recalled the tense meeting in his autobiography, Changing the Game: My Career in Collegiate Sports Marketing.

“‘I think Texas should keep its own gate receipts and all of its broadcasting revenue. I think A&M should do the same thing. I think every school should rise or fall on their own merits.’ Sherrill had clearly spoken with the representatives of the larger schools prior to the meeting, because none of them seemed surprised. Those from Rice, Houston, TCU, and Baylor looked completely shell-shocked.”[76]

The meeting marked the beginning of the separation of larger schools from their smaller counterparts.

Despite Texas legislatures’ efforts to keep Texas and Texas A&M in the SWC, the universities continued to seek opportunities outside of the SWC. Baylor and Texas Tech also desired to withdrawal from the collapsing conference. In 1994, David Sibley, a Republican state senator from Waco, Texas, asked William Cunningham, the University of Texas chancellor, if Texas and Texas A&M were still attempting to secede from the SWC. Although Cunningham did not directly answer the question, Sibley was determined that Baylor would lose significant funding if the Bears stayed in the SWC. Sibley and other prominent Baylor alumni, such as Governor Ann Richards, refused to allow Baylor to face these challenges. Texas Tech soon joined Baylor with concerns of losing significant funding. On February 20, 1994, Lieutenant Governor and Baylor alumnus Bob Bullock requested a meeting with the executives of Texas, Texas A&M, Baylor, and Texas Tech. The meeting convened in a state building near the Texas State Capitol. John Munford, the president of the senate and Texas Tech alum, was joined by William Mobley, Deane Gage, and Bill Clayton from A&M. Cunningham also made an appearance at the summit. Cunningham shared that the Horns were preparing to join the Big VIII. The news caused Bullock and the others to buy out Texas Tech’s and Baylor’s SWC contracts to join Texas’ counterparts.[77]

Texas A&M also planned to join the other universities and depart the SWC. However, Texas A&M’s final commitment was impeded due to issues pertaining the construction of a 33.4-million-dollar basketball arena and convocation facility. Clayton communicated to Bullock that Texas A&M needed two votes from the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, which governs construction projects at state schools, to begin construction on the facility. Clayton promised Bullock that he would acquire the necessary votes.[78] On February 24, 1994, four days following the initial meeting, Baylor, Texas Tech, Texas A&M, and Texas officially gained membership into the Big VIII.[79] The move to the Big VIII was a logical decision because it benefited all parties. The four schools continued to compete with other universities within the Central Time Zone. The Big VIII consisted of several universities that were nearby the Texas programs. During 1994, the longest trip road trip in the new Big VIII was between Texas Tech and Iowa State. The trip between Aimes, Iowa and Lubbock, Texas was approximately nine hundred and thirty miles. The Big VIII benefitted from the expansion due to its need to increase its broadcast audience and revenue. The addition of the four Texas teams expanded the Big VIII into the Big XII. On March 10, 1994, the Big XII signed a one hundred-million-dollar, five-year contract with Liberty Sports and ABC following the annexation of the new programs.[80]

The smaller schools in the SWC – Rice, TCU, SMU, and Houston – were the only four remaining teams in the SWC. SMU, Rice, and TCU were private institutions and did not have the benefit of the government subsidies compared to larger public universities. The reputations of TCU, SMU, and Houston were significantly marred by their NCAA probations.[81] The four schools lacked relevancy in the expanding media markets and conference mergers. They could not garner the viewership necessary to negotiate television deals that would support their athletic programs.[82] The remaining four schools fled to various other nationwide conferences. Rice, SMU, and TCU all left the SWC for the Western Athletic Conference (WAC). Their decision to join the WAC was fueled by their need for instant athletic stability. The institutions joined forces and were determined to share a similar fate as private institutions. The WAC also allowed the universities to continue their traditional rivalries. Inversely, Houston joined the Metro Conference which aligned with its public-school status and urban location.[83] Their departure signaled the demise of the eighty one year old SWC.

The SWC ceased existence on December 2, 1995, when the Houston Cougars played the Rice Owls in their regular season rivalry finale. Texas and Texas A&M were hoping to be the final SWC competition. However, the Lone Star Showdown was locked into a 2:30 kickoff on ABC. Meanwhile, Rice and Houston had a flexible television schedule. After learning about Texas’ television situations, Rice officials decided to start their game at 7:30 pm. The Battle for the Bayou Bucket was the final game of the SWC. The game was sold out with SWC fans. In fact, Rice officials opened the stadium to anyone during the second half so that fans could witness the final SWC competition. Following a hard-fought Houston victory, Rice conducted a final ceremony. A countdown was placed inside the stadium with a large switch on the field. When the clock hit zero, Rice season ticket holders, Dick and Margie Hudson, flipped a switch, signaling the conclusion of the conference.[84]

During its eighty one year history, the SWC produced five Heisman Trophy winners and five football national championship teams. The desire to be considered the dominant team in Texas lead to widespread cheating scandals within the SWC.[85] In a season of college football fueled by oil money, the need to win at all costs, and massive stadiums, the SWC was determined to rewrite the history of college football. Conversely, their story ended in disillusionment and unforeseen changes in college football. When the oil money dried up, the SWC lost major funding.[86] For the SWC to make up for this revenue decline, they needed to add highly profitable programs to their conference. Other teams were not interested since the SWC was permeated with a tainted reputation, NCAA sanctions, intense Texan pride, and poor media deals. As a result, the most robust SWC football programs united with other conferences, such as the SEC, where the promise of lucrative media deals offered a brighter future. The NCAA Anti-Trust verdict in 1984 opened the possibility for institutions to independently negotiate their own broadcast contracts. The unsatiable greed of college football was satisfied by the explosion of media outlets in the late 1980’s and into the 1990’s. The demise of the SWC was caused by the need to increase profitability through television broadcast contracts. The need for media revenue could only be realized through the dissolvement of the SWC.[87] With one final flip of the switch, the SWC's lights went out, marking the end of an era in college football.

Historiographic Essay

College football may superficially be perceived as a leisure pastime that united campus communities each fall. College football is more multi-dimensional than the mere development of school pride and ephemeral community unification. College football is a microcosm of broader societal economic constraints, cultural meaning, and socio-political challenges. Historians study college football to understand how these social issues are manifested by teams, universities, and conferences and transmitted to other segments of the population. Historians gain evidence to support their theories by examining several key factors. These factors include the lifespan of football conferences, the priorities and challenges of the universities within the conferences, and the business marketplace of college football. The purpose of the Southwest Conference (SWC) was to fundamentally serve Texas universities although it did include one Arkansas program. The SWC is particularly important in sports history because the lifespan of it rise and fall was compressed into slightly more than eight decades. It reflects the changes of a post reconstructive south, the power of oil money in shaping Texas, and the impact of a burgeoning media market. Some historians assert that the regionality of the conference was its greatest asset but also its most prominent liability. Others might argue that the conference unraveled due to its cheating scandals and economic issues fueled by the loss of oil money. Most would agree that the expansion of media markets and the need to increase profitability were ultimately the most pervasive reason for the demise of the SWC.

Eric M. Pfeifle, in his article, “Southwest Conference” in the Handbook of Texas (2024), chronicles the formation of the SWC. He credits L. Theo Bellmont, the athletic director at the University of Texas, as the main organizer of the conference. The new conference provided greater prestige with its member institutions because it increased their ethical and academic standards. Pfeifle remarks on the success of the SWC during its eighty-one year tenure. He notes how the men’s football team expanded to include the success of other SWC athletes in the areas of men’s and women’s basketball, track, tennis, swimming and other collegiate sports. He remarks that the SWC provided high levels of competition and success for its institutional members. He concludes his historical commentary with the observation that integrity problems were a contributing element to the collapse of the SWC. Although Pfeifle does not expand on the issue of integrity, it becomes a significant theme and value judgement of the SWC in its later years.

The Sports Revolution: How Texas Changed the Culture of American Athletics written by Frank Andre Guridy is a comprehensive study of Texas’s impact on professional and collegiate sports in the United States. Guridy begins his study with a brief examination of the early years of Texas football. He then focuses on how Jim Crows impacted the early years of the SWC. Many programs in the conference remained segregated until recruiting officers turned to African American leagues to infuse their programs with new talent for specific team positions. He mentions the growing nationalism after WWII and its impact on the popularity and the success of the SWC. He critically examines how the Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Civil Rights and Voting Acts of the 1960’s, and the Educational Amendment Act of 1972, provided new rights to previously disenfranchised groups of people. He claims that these transformative rulings challenged the cultural norms and accepted practices of universities. He argues that these rulings, while necessary for the evolution of the U.S., allowed for the further commercialization of football. He thinks that when the SWC completely abandoned Jim Crow laws, recruitment practices were expanded at all costs. Businessmen and oil tycoons became boosters. The universities allowed the boosters to operate in a laissez-faire fashion to gain additional funding for the university and other sports programs. Recruiting violations became the common narrative of the SWC. Integrity was sacrificed as the business of college football expanded. Guridy postulates that the loss of oil money in the 1980’s and the commercialization of college football led to the demise of this Texas focused conference. He argues that the business model of the SWC could not survive in the highly politicized environment of college conference mergers.

Chad Seifried, Carli Faulkner, Samantha Baker and James Piker cover the history of football by focusing their research on the building of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums. In their article, “The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums,” published in the Arkansas Historical Quarterly (2016), they detail why stadiums were a necessary requirement of major football teams. Ivy League universities compared the building of stadiums as tribute to its Greek origins. University officials believed this comparison brought dignity to the school and the violent game of football. The authors assert that large stadiums were needed by universities in the early nineteenth century for three reasons: 1) to produce revenue, 2) to increase alumni giving, and 3) to establish an institutional brand that would increase student enrollment. The authors note that these elements, plus the need to legitimize the University of Arkansas as a respected institution of higher learning, inspired the building of Razorback Stadium in Fayetteville in 1938. They reveal that the construction of Razorback Stadium was subsidized by grants from the Works Progress Administration in the 1930’s. The need for a stadium in the capitol city became apparent to lawmakers as the city of Little Rock expanded post-World War II. Eventually, the Fayetteville economy outpaced the Little Rock economy, and the money followed the renovation of Razorback Stadium. By the early 1980’s, college football had evolved into a major business. The Razorbacks explored joining the more profitable Southeast Conference (SEC). The stadium race in Arkansas was reflective of the stadium race in the SWC and the rest of the nation as universities searched for expanding revenue streams.

Auston Fertak’s article, “The Break-up of the Southwest Conference” in The Houston History Magazine (2013), explains how the SWC was heralded as one of the most harmoniously intertwined and powerful conferences in college football. He argues that the SWC demise was caused by the need to be a winning team over following the NCAA rules. SWC leaders believed that they were so powerful that they were exempt from ethical behavior, including following NCAA guidelines. One unethical decision was allowing wealthy boosters to provide athletes with unsanctioned payments to attend their alma mater. He mentions that smaller private universities tried to boost their opportunity to win by leveling the playing field through recruitment violations. Fertak comments that the NCAA placed sanctions, probations, and broadcasting restrictions for seven of the nine schools by the 1980’s. Fertak blames the NCAA for not preventing the cheating scandals prior to the 1980’s. He thinks cheating scandals were so rampant and such an integral part of each institution’s football culture by the mid 1980’s that it was too late to manage fall-out. He remarks that the SWC drifted from a powerhouse conference to a symbol of what is wrong with NCAA college football.

Sam Khan Jr. and Dave Wilson agree with some of Fertak’s SWC observations. In their article, “I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well: The Demise of the Southwest Conference, 25 Years Later”, for ESPN (2020), these authors take a retrospective look at what went wrong with the SWC. They interviewed more than two dozen key figures to determine the legacy and the demise of the SWC. They shared that the Texas centric conference from its inception became known for its bold Texas pride. The desire to be the top team fueled jealousy and allegations in the conference. The NCAA acted against most SWC schools in the 1980’s. The NCAA violations highlighted the financial differences between the large public universities and the smaller private schools. Despite the authors’ exploration of the pride and greed that incited the cheating scandals of the SWC in the 1980’s, they conclude that the 1984 Supreme Court ruling against the NCAA in an antitrust case was the ultimate demise of the SWC. With this rule, broadcasting rights and market size became the number one factor in conference sustainability.  The disbandment of the SWC allowed the larger schools to increase profitability by joining the Big VIII while the smaller schools were forced to join less profitable conferences.

Jim Host and Eric a Moyen examine the structure of the SWC through the lens of a college radio sports marketer. In their book, Changing the Game: My Career in Collegiate Sports Marketing, (2020) they detail how author Jim Host worked with the SWC to maximize radio broadcast profits. He helped the SWC develop contracts and funding schedules based on radio markets and sponsorships. He ensured that the contracts would provide maximum profitability even for the smaller schools. He established a system for in-conference play that diminished program costs. Host secured many highly profitable radio contracts that allowed the smaller schools to receive thirty thousand dollars annually in the early 1980’s. The authors note the internal struggle within the conference over gate receipts. Yet, they contend that this issue was minimized once the NCAA lost its college football broadcast monopoly. The authors comment that radio programming needed to gain national audiences as new media markets expanded and new power conferences emerged. While these authors do not mention the cheating scandals that marred the SWC, they do articulate that the SWC had to disband for their large teams to remain relevant in the national football market. These teams were motivated by the need to increasingly generate more revenue for their universities. The works of these authors will shape my research as I continue to explore how the SWC manifested macro level social issues during its eighty-one-year existence. I hope to expand my research to include the impact of the SWC on other collegiate sports and the dynamics of racism in the SWC.

Annotated Bibliography:

Historical Articles:

Balmer, Randall. “A Great Moral Force: The Civil War and the Origins of Football.” In        Passion Plays, 35–70. How Religion Shaped Sports in North America. University of    North Carolina Press, 2022.   

Balmer’s A Great Moral Force: The Civil War and the Origins of Football describes the rapid growth of football in the post war era. The chapter asserted that collegiate football became exceedingly popular following 1865 due to its focus on instilling masculinity within young men. He especially enforces the importance of religious thought in the United States to emphasize the development of masculinity and chivalry during a man’s college tenure. His experience as a priest and professor of religion at Dartmouth College is evident throughout his chapter. The chapter utilized several examples of gentlemanly code from early football matches, such as the Rutgers University versus Princeton University saga. The source provided valuable information and context to these early football games and illustrated a clear timeline of growth within the early years of college football.

Blair, Roger D., and Wenche Wang. “The NCAA Cartel and Antitrust Policy.” Review of             Industrial Organization 52, no. 2 (2018): 351–68.      

This article provides a critical standpoint regarding the NCAA as a governing organization. Roger Blair, professor of economics at the University of Florida, and Wenche Wang, assistant professor of sports management at the University of Michigan, combined their forces to focus on the NCAA’s tyrannical media rights from the 50s until the mid 80s. The article also exposes the NCAA’s exploitation of student-athletes and their profitability. The article was essential for me to fully understand the gravity of the NCAA v. Oklahoma University Board of Regents court case. The article also provided valuable information regarding the growth of football into a nationwide spectacle.

Chudacoff, Howard P. “‘Earthquake: Board of Regents v. NCAA.” In Changing the     Playbook, 63–82. How Power, Profit, and Politics Transformed College Sports. University of Illinois Press, 2015.   

Earthquake: Board of Regents v. NCAA, written by Howard Chudacoff, was an essential secondary source for my prospectus. Chudacoff is an American historian at Brown University. His research analyzes the role that sports has had on the American experience. Chudacoff’s chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the growth of media rights within football. The text describes the struggle between the CFA and the NCAA in great detail. He argues that the NCAA acted unjustly, violating Anti-Trust Laws with their tyrannical media requirements. His work continues to illustrate the lasting effects of the CFA, and its eventual collapse. Utilizing his work allowed me to further engage with the court documentation. Additionally, the text provided me with an overlay of media in college sports and how it affected SWC institutions.

Fertak, Auston. “The Break-Up of the Southwest Conference.” Houston History Magazine 10, no. 3 (July 2013): 35–38.

Auston Fertak’s entry into the Houston History Magazine dives into the collapse of the SWC. Fertak asserts that the SWC fell due to its rampant cheating scandals during the late 80s. According to the Texas A&M graduate, these scandals resulted in the SWC losing legitimacy amongst its Power Conference foes. Furthermore, the scandals forced Arkansas to look for a new conference to maintain its integrity and increase media deals. I utilized this resource to grow my understanding of the widespread cheating that consumed the SWC. His straightforward writing created a cheating timeline. I compared the source to several publications that also discussed the cheating scandals at various universities. Fertak’s work was especially useful when analyzing Houston’s 1988 recruitment scandal.

Guridy, Frank. The Sports Revolution: How Texas Changed the Culture of American Athletics. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2021.

Frank Guridy was instrumental in my historical narrative. Guridy, an expert in sports history, is a member of the History Department at Columbia University. His text showcases the brisk expansion of football across Texas, specifically focusing a large section of the book on the rise and fall of the SWC. Thus, I utilized several sections of his book as references for the story of the SWC.

Henkhaus, Luke. “Kyle: The Life And Legacy Of The Man Behind Texas A&M’s Football         Stadium.” Texas A&M Today, November 23, 2022. Texas A&M Today.             https://today.tamu.edu/2022/11/23/kyle-the-life-and-legacy-of-the-man-behind-texas-     ams-football-stadium/.

Luke Henkhaus’ piece provides basic knowledge regarding the importance of E.J. Kyle. Kyle was instrumental in the development of Texas A&M’s athletic department. He funded various programs, including their infamous football program. Henkhaus’ article highlights the rapid growth of football within the state of Texas. The author clearly illustrates the connection between football’s rapid popularity and construction of massive stadiums. This focus provides context for the eventual “stadium arms race” that engulfs the SWC in the early 1900s.

Khan, Sam, and Dave Wilson. “‘I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well’: The Demise of the Southwest Conference, 25 Years Later.” ESPN.Com, December 2, 2020. https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/30424417/i-wishof-well-demise-southwest-conference-25-years-later.

“I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well: The Demise of the Southwest Conference” is a craftly written article from Sam Kahn and Dave Wilson. Kahn and Wilson are both sports reporters for the Athletic and ESPN respectively. Their article combines their writing with several first-hand accounts of the SWC. Their article travels through the rise and fall of the conference. The usage of quotes from various coaches, staff members, and spectators add personalization throughout the article. The source was extremely important to adding additional context to my historical narrative as it covered a the entirety of the SWC’s complicated history. It is a highly entertaining and informative article.

O’Connell, Chris. “The Complete Story of DKR-Texas Memorial Stadium.” The Alcalde,         September 1, 2018. Google Books. https://alcalde.texasexes.org/2018/09/the-  complete-story-of-dkr-texas-memorial-stadium/.

This Alcalde entry provides more information regarding the stadium arms race within the infant SWC. Chris O’Connel, the author of the magazine article, illustrates the full history of the University of Texas football program by analyzing the growth of their stadium. The document also connects with several other primary and secondary sources. For example, the article describes the establishment of the stadium and its early renovations. These projects were all overseen by L. Theo Bellmont, Texas’ first Athletic Director. This connection with my other sources allowed me to use this article for specific stats and information that was not provided in other sources.

Pennington, Richard, and Denton A. Cooley. Longhorn Hoops: The History of Texas Basketball. University of Texas Press, 1998. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Longhorn_Hoops/vkBnUQuozSQC?hl=en&g bpv=1&dq=Longhorn+Hoops:+The+History+of+Texas+Basketball&pg=PA15&printsec=frontcover.

Longhorn Hoops: The History of Texas Basketball provides an in-depth analysis of the University of Texas’ athletic department. Both Richard Pennington, a sports history author, and Denton Cooley utilized their expertise from living in Texas to retell the story of Texas’ rise to national prominence. Although the text focuses on basketball, I utilized the source to learn more about L. Theo Bellmont’s role within the expansion of Texas’ athletic department. Additionally, I used the narrative timeline provided throughout the book to compare the SWC’s growth in other sports than football. Although the text contains valuable information, the information is told in a direct and engaging manner.

Petersen, Jeffrey C., and Lawrence W. Judge. “Reframing the Collegiate Facilities Arms Race: The Looming Impact of NIL and Conference Realignment.” Journal of Applied Sport Management, 2021. https://doi.org/10.7290/jasm13wlu7.

Jeffery Peterson and Lawrence Judge’s article, Reframing the Collegiate Facilities Arms Race, asserts the importance of facilities in the rapid development of college football. Jeffery Peterson, a professor in Baylor University’s Sports Management department, and Lawrence W. Judge, professor of Kinesiology at Ball State University, draw a direct correlation to the development of stadiums and team success, conference strength, and college athletics’ rapid spread. The source was pivotal in analyzing the stadium arms race that occurred in the early years of the SWC. I utilized the resource to show the importance and swift construction of college football stadiums within the SWC. The source correlated with several of my primary sources that described the growth of football at universities and the establishment of new athletics venues across SWC campuses.

Quirk, James. “College Football Conferences and Competitive Balance.” Managerial and Decision Economics 25, no. 2 (2004): 63–75. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25151277.

James Quirk’s “College Football Conferences and Competitive Balance” focuses on the impact of media deals on intercollegiate competition in football. The article provides detail regarding FBS schools’ prestige and revenue. His analysis provides context for the SWC’s struggles in media outreach. This analysis also provides details regarding Arkansas’ defection from the SWC to the SEC. He utilizes simple figures to aid his readers in understanding the importance of conference composition. Quirk ended his academic career at California Institute of Technology in the Economics department.

Richmond, Sam. “1st College Football Game Ever Was New Jersey vs. Rutgers in 1869.” NCAA.org, 2024. https://www.ncaa.com/news/football/article/2017-11-06/college-football-history-heres-when-1st-game-was-played.

Sam Richmond is a reporter for the NCAA. His article recaps the events of the first intercollegiate football game between Princeton University and Rutgers University. His writing is clear and uses story-telling elements to create excitement from his readers. I utilized this article to add additional context to several of the primary sources that also described this contest. The article provided several statistics that my primary sources did not include. The article showed the early stages of football compared to its modern counterpart.

Riesman, David, and Reuel Denney. “Football in America: A Study in Culture Diffusion.” American Quarterly 3, no. 4 (1951): 309–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/3031463.

David Riesman and Ruel Denney’s article was essential to understanding the early state of college football. Riesman, a well-known sociologist, partnered with Ruel Denney, an American pop-culture scholar, to examine the growth of football throughout America. Their academic writing includes several pictures from various eras of football. I utilized this source to observe the early stages of football and its rapid increase of popularity within the Eastern United States. I compared the source to several other primary sources describing the development of football within the Ivy League. The text also provided context regarding Walter Camp and the establishment of regulations to collegiate football. Thus, the text was crucial in my understanding of early football.

Seifried, Chad, Carli N. Faulkner, Samantha P. Baker, and James F. Piker. “The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums.” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly 75, no. 3 (2016): 181–205. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26281817.

A source that was useful to deepen my understanding of the fall of the Southwest Conference (SWC) was the article The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadium. The article was written by Chad Seidfried, Carli Faulkner, Samantha Baker, and James Piker. Seidfried is a professor of Kinesiology at Louisiana State University (LSU). He has been included in several other academic sports journals. The other authors that were included were students that aided him in his research. Seidfried and company were able to use their expertise in Kinesiology to convey an understanding of student athletes at Arkansas. Additionally, they analyzed the growth of collegiate football at the University. The authors used linear literature, making the article easy to follow for readers. Thus, I was able to separate several eras within Razorback football to gain a deeper understanding of their role in the SWC. It also aided in my understanding of their decision to depart from the SWC and join the SEC. This linear article allowed me to form a strong foundation to begin explaining the fall of the SWC.

Solberg, Winton U. “The Beginning of the Big Ten.” In Creating the Big Ten, 13–31. Courage, Corruption, and Commercialization. University of Illinois Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.5406/j.ctt2272796.5.

Winton Solberg was a professor of history at the University of Illinois during the composition of his book, “Creating the Big Ten.” The historian wrote the historical novel in an accessible manner, allowing him to connect with the average reader. His book provides a historical timeline in a narrative manner. I used a chapter of his book to analyze the development of conferences in the early stages of collegiate football. I compared this novel with several primary sources that discussed the development of Bellmont’s SWC. In addition, the book describes the important tension between athletic programs and faculty during the rise of collegiate sports. This topic was also analyzed in several of my primary sources. Although the novel is focused on the Big Ten, its details on conference development was necessary to understand how conferences were being developed across the nation.

Handbook of Texas Entries:

The Handbook of Texas is an encyclopedia of the State’s history. The articles within the source are written by several Texan academics. The utilize comprehensible writing to relay basic information about Texas’ complicated history. The combination of works is published by the University of Texas Press and regularly updated. I referenced this source several times throughout my project. Margaret Berry (L. Theo Bellmont), Eric Pfeile (Southwest Conference), and Lisa Maxwell (Cotton Bowl) aided in my understanding of the rise and fall of the SWC. Meanwhile, the entries from Roger Olien (Oil and Gas Industry), Rita Crabbe (Hugh Roy Cullen), and Sylvia Gunn (Kern Tips) illustrated the importance of the oil industry within Texas. Each of their entries introduced historical characters that were also introduced in my narrative. The resource was excellent for researching several items efficiently, while relating to several primary and secondary sources. Below are the entries I cited in my historical narrative:

Berry, Margaret. “Bellmont, L. Theodore.” In Handbook of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, November 1, 1994. Texas State Historical Association. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/bellmont-l-theodore.

Crabbe, Rita. “Cullen, Hugh Roy.” In Texas State Historical Association. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, December 7, 2016. Texas State Historical Association. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cullen-hugh-roy.

Gunn, Sylvia. “Tips, Kern.” In Handbook of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, July 14, 2017. Texas State Historical Association. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/tips-kern.

Maxwell, Lisa. “Cotton Bowl.” In Texas State Historical Association. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, October 16, 2024. Texas Archive. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cotton-bowl.

Olien, Roger. “Oil and Gas Industry.” In The Handbook of Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, January 29, 2022. Texas State Historical Association. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/oil-and-gas-industry.

Pfeifle, Eric. “Southwest Conference.” In Texas State Historical Association. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2024. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/southwest-conference.

Primary Source Analysis:

Student Periodicals:

Student newspapers were essential to this historical narrative. I utilized several student publications. I utilized articles from The Targrum and the Yale Daily News to describe the early stages of college football. The articles described the setting, rules, and evolution of the game during its early era. The Daily Texan and The Battalion were also essential to understand the early stages of football in Texas. These publications also described the establishment of the SWC and the interconference tensions between universities. The Skiff, The Rice Thresher, The Cougar, The University Daily, and The Daily Campus continued to share the struggles of SWC universities. These publications provided student perspectives on the rise and fall of the conference. Below are the student publications I utilized:

Best, Kent. “NCAA Slaps Tech Football with Year Probation.” The University Daily, March 4, 1987, 62 edition, sec. News. The University Daily. Texas Tech University Special Collections Library.

Kent Best’s article discusses the NCAA’s sanctions on the Texas Tech football program following minor recruiting infractions. Tech’s violations included giving small gifts to incoming recruits. The NCAA removed three athletic scholarships from Tech. The article shares the relief felt around the campus after the NCAA shutdown SMU’s football program earlier that year. The University Daily article relates to several secondary and primary sources that handle information regarding cheating within the conference. I specifically utilized the article when talking about the sanctions placed on two-thirds of the SWC’s members.

Buckner-Sears, Brandie. “Alumni Respond to Allegations.” The Skiff, November 21, 1985, sec. News. Mary Couts Burnett Library.

“Alumni Responds to Allegations” is an article written in The Skiff, TCU’s student newspaper. The story, written by Brandie Buckner-Sears, discussed the 1985 TCU payment scandal. According to the article, TCU alum Dick Lowe was the primary offender. Lowe was an avid supporter of TCU football. The article shows the widespread cheating epidemic within the SWC. The article directly related to David Berst’s NCAA document that describes the penalties against TCU.

Chandra, Seema, Christof Spieler, and Angelique Sly. “The Death of a Conference.” The Rice Thresher, December 1, 1995, 1 edition, sec. Features. United States - Texas - Harris County - Houston. University of North Texas.

This Rice Thresher article discusses the final SWC game between the Rice Owls and the Houston Cougars. The rivalry game, nicknamed the Bayou Bucket, was played on December 2, 1995, at Rice Stadium. The article analyzed the Owls’ role within the conference, explored the program’s future, and predict the outcome of the competition. The authors present a critical viewpoint on the larger universities with a satirical attitude to their departure to the Big VIII. I utilized Seema Chandra’s article when recapping the final days of the conference.

Fischer, Joseph, George Stevens, and Stephen Gano. “The Foot-Ball Match of Rutgers vs. Columbia.” The Targum, November 1870, 2 edition. Rutgers University Libraries.

Joseph Fischer, George Stevens, and Stephen Gano authored an article in Rutger’s Targrum that retold their football match against Columbia University. The game was the third intercollegiate football game for Rutgers. The article provides several details of the game such as the crowd, the weather, and the actions of the teams before and after the game. The article also poked fun at Columbia with satirical mentions of the chants yelled by students. The article shows the beginning of football’s spread through the Eastern United States. Thus, I used this article towards the beginning of my narrative.

Gladden, Donna, and David Boclair. “SMU Football Team Survives Death Threat.” The Daily Campus, February 26, 1987, V. 72, 98 edition. SMU Libraries. https://digitalcollections.smu.edu/digital/collection/stud/id/5400/rec/26.

“SMU Football Team Survives Death Penalty” discusses the immediate reaction of the NCAA sanctions against the Mustangs. The NCAA placed sanctions on SMU following the payment of football players to attend the university. The sanctions placed severe probations on SMU including a television ban, the removal of several athletic scholarships, a postseason ban, and the barring of competition for a year. Donna Gladden and David Boclair, who authored the Daily Campus article, provide a straightforward dissection of the NCAA’s decision. The article was pivotal to my Ponygate section.

McCaskey, Rusty. “Optimistic Frogs Prepare for Season.” The Skiff, August 28, 1986, 87 edition, sec. Sports. TCU Digital Repository. Mary Couts Burnett Library.

Rusty McCaskey’s newspaper entry forecasts the 1986 TCU football season. The story includes information regarding TCU’s cheating scandal in the 1985 scandal. The article states the three year probation enacted by the NCAA was caused by players being paid by boosters to compete for the institution. The article directly correlates with David Berst’s document, which describes the offenses by TCU and action conducted by the NCAA. The student-drafted article was another addition to the cheating section of my historical narrative.

McGinnis, Grant. “Dust Settles on Dismissals.” The Skiff, September 21, 1985, sec. News. TCU Digital Repository. Mary Couts Burnett Library.

Similarly to McCaskey’s article, Grant McGinnis’ article discusses TCU’s recruitment violations. The article was written directly after the scandal had been uncovered. McGinnis praised TCU head coach Jim Wacker’s transparency, as he immediately reported the violations after they were uncovered by a player. The article is written with a sense of nervousness due to the recent 1985 sanctions placed on SMU. The article correlates with both Berst’s and McCaskey’s texts. The publication was utilized in the same sectioned as the aforementioned resources.

Pittuck, B.C. “Foot-Ball.” The Battalion, January 1894, 1 edition.

B.C. Pittuck’s article discusses the founding of Texas A&M’s football program. The article talks about the tension between students and faculty due to the burgeoning push for college athletics. The piece has an undertone that supports the establishment of college athletes and football as an integral part of college extracurriculars. The article also mentions several individuals who were on the inaugural football team. Pittuck also mentioned Walter Camp’s effects on the evolution of football and the spread of the game to the state of Texas. By including this article into my corpus, I am able to compare football’s evolution in Texas with the founding of football on the East Coast.

Smith, Amanda. “A&M Moves on to Next Arena with Aggie Muster in April.” The Battalion, March 2, 1998, 101 edition, sec. Sports. Texas A&M Newspaper Collection.

“A&M Moves on to Next Arena with Aggie Muster in April” relays information regarding the establishment of Reed Arena. The original basketball stadium was demolished to make room for an expansion to Kyle Field. The article discusses the changes and cost of the arena. This information was relevant to the departure of Texas A&M from the SWC. Bill Clayton, a Texas politician, garnered support for the construction of the arena along with their departure from the SWC. The article added context to the final decision for Texas A&M to leave the conference.

Stewart, John. “Cullens Break Ground for New Building.” The Daily Cougar, April 1, 1938, 4 edition, sec. News. Student Newspapers and Periodicals. University of Houston Archives.

John Stewart’s article for Houston’s Daily Cougar shares the blueprint for the construction of a new building on campus. The building was funded by Hugh Roy Cullen, a Houston-based oilman. Cullen was a key booster to the SWC, as his Humble Oil Company Radio covered various SWC sporting events for multiple decades. Stewart’s entry discusses the philanthropic nature of Cullen and eagerly informs the readers about the amenities of the structure. The article was utilized to look at the role of oilmen within Texas and SWC institutions.

Taylor, Graham, Aaron Benson, J.S. Ferguson, and John Babcock. “The Foot-Ball Match.” The Targum, November 1869, 1 edition. The Targum. Rutgers University Libraries.

Graham Taylor and Aaron Benson’s Targrum article provides an outline for the first two intercollegiate football games played. The competitions were between Rutgers and Princeton in a home-to-home series. Rutgers won both of the contests. The writers were extremely biased towards Rutgers, mocking Princeton’s unorganized playstyle. The article also promoted the chivalry of the games, retelling how the teams shared meals before and after the spectacle. Taylor and Benson reveal the unorganized style of play prior to the addition of Walter Camp’s regulations. The source serviced my introduction of the narrative, sharing eyewitness accounts of the game.

Yale Daily News. “Meeting of the Intercollegiate Foot-Ball Association.” October 12, 1888, 12 edition. Yale Daily News Archive. Yale University Libraries.

This Yale Daily News article retells Walter Camp’s summit to create an organized intercollegiate football league. Camp’s additions included higher regulations and specifications towards players. These rules made the game safer and less chaotic. College football would not have spread rapidly if Camp did not implement these rules in the early stages of the game. I utilized this source when writing about the development of modern football and its rapid westward expansion.

Municipal Newspapers:

The addition of city newspapers added an additional layer of eye-witness accounts of college football. I utilized The Dallas Morning News, The Los Angeles Times, and UPI as my city publications. The Morning News provided valuable information regarding the growth of the SWC. Additionally, the periodical discussed the perspectives of TCU and SMU regularly. For example, the Morning News provided extensive coverage of the 1987 Ponygate scandal. The Los Angeles Times and UPI provided national opinions about the SWC. These sources were especially helpful when observing the collapse of the SWC. The sources discussed cheating scandals and conference realignment. The LA Times writer, Gene Wojciechowski, was based in Dallas and also wrote for the Morning News. These large sources related to several secondary sources, student newspapers, and documents. Unfortunately, images for these sources are not available due to their webpage format. The aforementioned sources are listed below:

Harvey, Randy. “SMU Banned From Playing Football in ’87.” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 1987, sec. Sports. Los Angeles Times Archive.

Randy Harvey acts as the sports editor for The Houston Chronicle. Prior to serving the Chronicle, Harvey acted as the LA Times sports editor and associate editor. He has authored at several other Texas based newspapers throughout his career. His experiences across the state are illustrated during his emphasis on the importance of the 1987 SMU scandal. His article provides a national perspectives and opinions regarding Ponygate. The article recaps the full situation, including the NCAA’s sanctions. I utilized this article when discussing the effect of Ponygate on the SWC.

Lawrence, Mitch. “SMU Draws Heavy NCAA Penalty - TV, Bowl Games Banned; Football Scholarships Cut.” Dallas News, August 17, 1985, sec. Photos.

This Dallas Morning News article describes the severe sanctions placed on SMU following Ponygate. Mitch Lawrence expertise lies in basketball. Nevertheless, his description of the SMU scandal is detailed, utilizing accessible language. Lawrence’s opinion about SMU’s situation is echoed in several municipal and student periodicals. The information provided also aligns with several secondary sources. I utilized the information to further analyze Ponygate. The article also helped me understand the seriousness of television bans to a college program. Ponygate and the NCAA’s reaction became common place within the SWC, spelling its demise.

Luna, Richard. “Texas A&M Placed on NCAA Probation.” UPI, September 9, 1988, sec. Sports. UPI Archives. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/09/09/Texas-AM-placed-on-NCAA-probation/6562589780800/.

Richard Luna’s article, “Texas A&M Placed on NCAA Probation,” describes the Aggies’ recruiting violations in 1988. A&M was found guilty of violating recruiting rules twenty-five times. The NCAA’s probations were typical of several SWC programs. Luna’s article was instrumental to understanding the widespread cheating scandals in the Texas based conference. 

Wojciechowski, Gene. “Arkansas Joins SEC; There May Be More : Colleges: Miami, Texas, Florida State, South Carolina, Texas A&M; Also Might Wind up in Southeastern Conference.” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1990, sec. Sports. Los Angeles Times Archive.

Gene “Woj” Wojciechowski is an accomplished journalist, working in several media markets. Woj is best known for his work with ESPN. Prior to his time at the network, he covered Dallas sports for the Morning News. His report informs readers about the state of the SWC and Arkansas during 1990. In 1990, Arkansas departed the SWC for the SEC. Their withdrawal signaled the demise of the conference. Woj’s article specifically looks at the SEC’s efforts to add other schools along with Arkansas to expand their conference. His article relates to several Texas state legislatures holding the Horns and Aggies as hostage in the crumbling SWC. The story is also foreshadowing, as both teams would leave the Big XII in 2012 and 2024 respectively to join the SEC.

UPI. “Former Player Claims SMU Paid Him Thousands during Career - UPI Archives.” November 13, 1986.

This article describes an interview with David Stanley. Stanley was a former player for the Mustangs but left the team following an injury and drug usage. Stanley is responsible for the NCAA and SMU conducting a joint investigation. Their investigation discovered that the SMU Board of Governors was continuing to pay players following the 1985 sanctions. Stanley’s interview is a crucial source to the historical narrative, as it ques the NCAA’s deadly sanctions against the Mustangs. The source relates to several secondary sources that describe the SWC’s cheating issues and SMU’s fall from the national stage.

Magazines:

I cited magazines throughout my historical narrative. One of these journals was The Alcalde. The Alcalde is the official University of Texas alumni publication. The magazine allows for Texas alums, known as the Texas Exes, to stay connected with the University and connect with fellow members of the community. I utilized Alcalde articles from various eras, with the oldest publication being from 1913. The publication discusses important changes within the University of Texas athletic department. Thus, the conglomerate of the articles provides a timeline of the Longhorns’ football program throughout the SWC and beyond. The second publication I referenced was Sports Illustrated.  Similar to the municipal newspapers, Sports Illustrated provided a nationwide perspective of the SWC. The articles were especially effective in describing the collapse of the conference. The sources related to various primary and secondary sources. The publication articles are listed below:

Dyer, Ben. The Alcalde. 1st ed. Vol. 4. Austin, TX: former students of the University of Texas at Austin., 1915. https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/PKEiAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1.

Ben Dyers, the main editor of the 1915 Alcalde, included several articles within his publication. One of the articles discussed the continued development of Texas’ athletic department. He specifically discusses the edition of stands for football games at the university. The initial Texas football games were played at Clark Field. The article describes the establishment of the original venue and continued rise of college football’s popularity. The primary source correlates with secondary sources that describe Texas’ early football program.

Jenkins, Sally. “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out.” Sports Illustrated, November 16, 1992. Sports Illustrated Vault. https://vault.si.com/vault/1992/11/16/sorry-state-football-in-the-southwest-conference-isnt-what-it-used-to-be-and-texas-and-texas-am-are-looking-to-bail-out.

Sally Jenkins article provides a satirical and critical analysis of the SWC. Her text was written two years after the departure of Arkansas. She specifically discusses the Hogs’ departure throughout the article. She also discusses the plethora of cheating scandals that several SWC members had endured. The Sports Illustrated entry provides a first-hand account of the dissolution of the SWC. This account correlates with several other primary and secondary sources, which blame similar reasons to Jenkins as they discuss the messy breakup of the conference.

Katz, Amy. “The Big Switch.” The Alcalde, 1994-06 1994.

“The Big Switch” discusses the SWC and Big VIII merger that occurred in 1994. The alumni magazine article mainly focuses on Texas’ perspective, but does include viewpoints from A&M, Tech, and Baylor regarding the change. The article is divided into specific sections that validate the departure of the Horns from the SWC. These reasons, such as media deals, is shared in several secondary sources. Although the source includes the perspective of the larger SWC programs, it ignores the consequences of their departure on their smaller counterparts.

The Alcalde. 1st ed. Vol. 11. Austin, TX: former students of the University of Texas at Austin., 1913.

The 1913 edition of The Alcalde provided essential information regarding the growth of Texas’ athletic department. One of the articles includes a list of new staff and faculty hires at the University of Texas. One of the mentioned individuals is L. Theo Bellmont. Bellmont was initially hired as the Director of Physical Training at the institution. Bellmont eventually became the university’s first athletic director. Bellmont founded the SWC and started several other athletic programs during his tenure at the university. The article provides background information of the eventual Longhorn legend.

Documents:

Historical documents played a pivotal role during my research. I utilized various government and NCAA documents throughout the historical narrative. The governmental documents included censuses of Texas, a media map, and a court decision. The NCAA document I utilized discussed the terms of TCU’s probation. The combination of government and NCAA documents provide extra context to the rise and fall of the SWC. Moreover, they provide firsthand information that is covered in press sources. The citations for the documents are below:

Berst, David. “NCAA Imposes Penalties in Texas Christian University Infractions Case.” NCAA Department of Enforcement, May 9, 1986. https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/search/miCaseView/report?id=102141.

David Berst acted as the NCAA’s head of enforcement during the SWC’s plethora of cheating scandals. This document describes the infractions committed by the Horned Frogs and the NCAA ruling on their situation. The sanctions forced TCU to forfeit media revenue from two seasons, reduce their athletic scholarships by ten, and were ineligible for postseason competitions. The document recounts another example of cheating within the Texas conference. The document was used in conjunction with secondary sources that focused on the collapse of the SWC. Entries from The Skiff also discussed the sanctions.

Hunt, William. “Census Bulletin: Population of Texas By Counties and Minor Civil Divisions.” Census. 12th Census of the United States, February 4, 1901. Texas Population. U.S. Census Bureau.

I utilized two censuses in my research project. The first census was the 1901 census of Texas. I utilized this source to show the growth of football relative to the population of the state. The source was included as a comparison to its 1920 counterpart.

Rogers, Sam. “Census Bulletin: Number of Inhabitants, By Counties and Minor Civil Divisions.” State Population: 14th Census of the United States, 1920. Texas Population. U.S. Census Bureau.

The 1920 census of Texas was the second census I utilized in my project. The census showed the expansion of football relative to Texas’ population. The expanded population forced Texas universities to expand their athletics venues. The census provided empirical evidence for the correlation between stadium construction and population growth.

NCAA v. Board of Regents of University of Oklahoma, 468 U.S. 85 (1984), No. 83-271 (U.S. Supreme Court June 27, 1984). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/468/85/.

The “NCAA v. Board of Regent of University of Oklahoma” contains the court’s decision regarding NCAA’s control over school’s media rights. The Supreme Court decision changed media’s role within collegiate sports, as the court sided with Oklahoma. The decision allowed schools to control their own media deals. The decision gave power to the CFA, and eventually the conferences, to decide their member’s media deals. The SWC’s lack of attractive media options following the case caused the larger schools to look at other conferences. Media revenue ended up dividing the conference, with Texas, A&M, Tech, and Baylor leaving the SWC.

“County-Based Regions and Markets for Texas.” Polidata, 2000. Polidata. https://www.polidata.org/pub/maps/rg2000/tx_reg.pdf.

This map shows the population and relevance of media markets in Texas. Texas possesses three main markets, Dallas, San Antonio, and Houston. The SWC contained these three markets due to the majority of their members being located in East Texas. Although the conference contained several major media markets, its inability to attract outside audiences caused the conference’s media revenue to be irrelevant.

Photo/Videos:

One of my favorite resources I utilized were the photos and videos I found. I included two news stories when researching the SWC. Both interviews take place during the latter years of the SWC. Inversely, a collection of photographs from one of Texas’ first games was taken prior to the inception of the SWC. The sources were extremely valuable to provide additional context to primary sources’ descriptions of football in Texas. The photos and interviews highlighted the importance of football in Texas and its rapid development. Please see the sources below:

Colville, J.M. Football Match: University of Texas Foot Ball Club vs Dallas Foot Ball Club. November 30, 1893. Pen and Photograph. Briscoe Center Archives.

J.M. Colville’s photo collection includes several photos from Texas’ Thanksgiving matchup against the Dallas Football Club. The game was Texas’ inaugural season finale and concluded in a 18-16 victory for the Horns. The collection illustrates the early stages of football in Texas and the rise of the sport’s popularity. It also shows the effects of Walter Camp on early college football. The images relate to the primary sources that account the first football games.

“Southern Methodist University Football Scandal (1987) - Mickey Leland Archives.” NBC Nightly News. Dallas: NBC, 1987. News Broadcasts. Texas Archive.

 This NBC news story investigates the Ponygate scandal at SMU. The story, covered by Dan Molina, includes quotes from the SMU student body, the Board of Governors, and Governor William Clements. The imagery of the story shows a general disgust for the scandal. This opinion is echoed in several student and national publications that covered the 1987 scandal. This opinion is also shared in several secondary sources.

“Dallas News Clip: SMU and TCU Students React to SWC.” News Interview. KXAS-NBC 5 Local News. Fort Worth, TX: NBC, 1994. News Clip. University of North Texas.

 “SMU and TCU Students React to SWC” is another news story from Dallas’ NBC station. The story was shot directly after the secession of Texas, A&M, Tech, and Baylor from the SWC. The Dallas based station covers the opinions of both TCU and SMU students. These students share various opinions regarding the change. Nevertheless, a general sense of shock is shared throughout the student bodies. The coverage relates several primary and secondary sources that provide the perspective of the smaller institutions during the fall of the conference.

Methodology Statement

My research project will draw from a collection of secondary sources that allow for an extensive exploration of the rise and fall of the Southwest Conference (SWC). These resources will allow me to familiarize myself with the rise of college athletics, to examine SWC football as an American institution, and to reflect on the metamorphosis of college football into a business enterprise. These resources will assist me in delving into the early history of college football as an elite sport and the ways in which it transformed the higher education landscape. The resources will help me investigate how stadium construction was motivated by the need to create a loyal alumni base who would willingly fund further institutional endeavors. Finally, these secondary sources will increase my understanding of sports as an economic venture.

My research plan also incorporates a variety of primary sources, including municipal newspapers, university publications, student publications, photographs, and nationwide publications and editorials. These resources will provide further investigation of interviews with coaches, athletic directors, university administrators, NCAA regulators, and Texas oil tycoons. Photograph collections will illustrate the stories of the stakeholders in the SWC. Sports Illustrated and ESPN will provide valuable archival research while offering a glimpse into the expansion of college football and other college athletics. The addition of NCAA documents, federal court documents, and state documents will provide a legal framework for understanding the history of sports regulations.

My main goal is to combine both the primary and secondary sources to create a dynamic historical narrative that details the lifespan of the SWC. I plan to use this research as evidentiary support for the multifaceted demise of the SWC. The collapse was fundamentally caused by the expansion of media markets and by the power struggle to increase profitability.

Tentative Research Plan:

For my Senior Independent Study, I intend to conduct research related to the historical development of college football, the rapid growth of its popularity in Texas, and the rise and fall of the Southwest Conference (SWC). I plan to specifically focus on the role that media played in shaping public perceptions of football, the lifespan of the SWC, and the prominence of college athletic conferences with nationwide representation. My research will utilize a multi-pronged approach by incorporating primary and secondary sources and regular consultation with Dr. Roche, my advisor who is an American Southwest historian. I will employ methods which include archival research of historical periodicals and documents, the analysis of national and regional magazines, and review of scholarly literature.

The following provides a more detailed overview of the specific methodologies that I will use to explore this subject matter:

1.     Archival research of municipal and university newspapers (Late 1800’s to 1995)

The first key method of my research will involve the study of municipal and university newspapers from Texas, dating from the late 1800’s through 1995. These newspapers were instrumental in providing a regional perspective on the origins and evolution of college football in the state. By examining publications from various cities and universities, I will be able to track how the sport grew in popularity within Texas and how local coverage reflected the changing dynamics of college athletics. I will access these newspapers through online university library archives. I anticipate that these archives will allow me to collect a wide range of articles and images that reflect the earliest developments in college football, the formation and dissolution of the SWC, and the public's perception of both.

The timeframe of the late 1800’s to 1995 is chosen because it covers a wide span of college football in Texas and the SWC’s history from its early days as a powerful athletic league to its eventual disbandment. This period of study offers crucial insight into how regional media shaped public discourse surrounding college football and how the sport became a central part of Texas' cultural and social landscape. Through this archival research, I will identify key moments in college football history, including pivotal games, controversies, and developments within the SWC.

2.     Research of national magazines

To complement my regional research, I will expand my focus to include national magazines, particularly Sports Illustrated, to gain a broader perspective on the rise and fall of the SWC. I imagine that national magazines will offer an external viewpoint that will allow me to understand how media outlets outside of Texas perceived the SWC and its influence on college football.

Sports Illustrated, in particular, is a valuable resource due to its long-standing, popular coverage of college sports, including in-depth articles and analysis. I will study both feature stories and shorter pieces from the 1990’s onward to understand how the SWC was portrayed in national media and how its decline was discussed in the larger context of the evolution of college football. By comparing regional and national perspectives, I will be able to construct a more nuanced understanding of how the media’s portrayal of the SWC contributed to the public’s view of college football within Texas and nationwide.

3.     Review of scholarly sources on the role of media in college athletics

I will review scholarly sources that analyze the role of media in shaping college athletics. This research will involve reading academic journal articles and books that address the intersections of media, sports, and public perception. Scholars have long studied the influence of media coverage on the commercialization of college sports, the impact of politics on college sports, and the shaping of popular culture based on college sports. I will focus on secondary sources that explore how the media reflected and shaped the growth of college football in Texas. Key themes in this body of research may include the rise of televised college football, the support of boosters, and the political and economic factors that influenced media coverage. These scholarly sources are crucial for providing theoretical frameworks that will allow me to interpret primary and secondary sources more critically.

4.     Expert consultation with Dr. Roche

I plan to consult with Dr. Roche, my faculty advisor and an expert in Texas history and politics, to gain further context and perspective on my findings. Dr. Roche’s deep knowledge of Texas’ political landscape and cultural history will provide me with a unique lens through which to view my research. We will hold weekly discussions that will refine my research focus and will provide additional depth to my analysis.

The methodology being employed in my independent study will combine multiple research strategies. Each of these strategies will contribute to a deeper understanding of how media influenced the growth of college football and the evolution of the SWC. By conducting archival research, analyzing national media coverage, reviewing scholarly literature, and consulting with my advisor, I will be able to explore the complex relationship between media representation and the establishment and collapse of the SWC.

[1] James Quirk, “College Football Conferences and Competitive Balance,” Managerial and Decision Economics 25, no. 2 (2004): 63–75.

[2] Graham Taylor et al., “The Foot-Ball Match,” The Targum, November 1869, 1 edition, The Targum, Rutgers University Libraries.

[3] Randall Balmer, “A Great Moral Force: The Civil War and the Origins of Football,” in Passion Plays, How Religion Shaped Sports in North America (University of North Carolina Press, 2022), 35–70, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469670089_balmer.6.

[4] Taylor et al., “The Foot-Ball Match.”

[5] Joseph Fischer, George Stevens, and Stephen Gano, “The Foot-Ball Match of Rutgers vs. Columbia,” The Targum, November 1870, 2 edition, Rutgers University Libraries.

[6] “Meeting of the Intercollegiate Foot-Ball Association,” Yale Daily News, October 12, 1888, 12 edition, Yale Daily News Archive, Yale University Libraries.

[7] David Riesman and Reuel Denney, “Football in America: A Study in Culture Diffusion,” American Quarterly 3, no. 4 (1951): 309–25, https://doi.org/10.2307/3031463.

[8] Sam Richmond, “1st College Football Game Ever Was New Jersey vs. Rutgers in 1869,” NCAA.org, 2024, https://www.ncaa.com/news/football/article/2017-11-06/college-football-history-heres-when-1st-game-was-played.

[9] Riesman and Denney, “Football in America.”

[10] Winton U. Solberg, “The Beginning of the Big Ten,” in Creating the Big Ten, Courage, Corruption, and Commercialization (University of Illinois Press, 2018), 14, https://doi.org/10.5406/j.ctt2272796.5.

[11] Solberg.

[12] Roger D. Blair and Wenche Wang, “The NCAA Cartel and Antitrust Policy,” Review of Industrial Organization 52, no. 2 (2018): 351–68.

[13] J.M. Colville, Football Match: University of Texas Foot Ball Club vs Dallas Foot Ball Club, November 30, 1893, Pen and Photograph, November 30, 1893, Briscoe Center Archives, https://digitalcollections.briscoecenter.org/item/460855#page/1/mode/2up.

[14] The Alcalde, 1st ed., vol. 11 (Austin, TX: former students of the University of Texas at Austin., 1913), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Alcalde/EqAiAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=L.+Theodore+bellmont&pg=PA199&printsec=frontcover.

[15] Richard Pennington and Denton A. Cooley, Longhorn Hoops: The History of Texas Basketball (University of Texas Press, 1998), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Longhorn_Hoops/vkBnUQuozSQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Longhorn+Hoops:+The+History+of+Texas+Basketball&pg=PA15&printsec=frontcover.

[16] Margaret Berry, “Bellmont, L. Theodore,” in Handbook of Texas (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, November 1, 1994), Texas State Historical Association, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/bellmont-l-theodore.

[17] Oklahoma A&M became Oklahoma State in 1957 due to its expansion of its curriculum.

[18] Eric Pfeifle, “Southwest Conference,” in Texas State Historical Association (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2024), https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/southwest-conference.

[19] Berry, “Bellmont, L. Theodore.”

[20] Pfeifle, “Southwest Conference.”

[21] Chad Seifried et al., “The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums,” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly 75, no. 3 (2016): 181–205.

[22] Ben Dyer, The Alcalde, 1st ed., vol. 4 (Austin, TX: former students of the University of Texas at Austin., 1915), https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/PKEiAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1.

[23] Chris O’Connell, “The Complete Story of DKR-Texas Memorial Stadium,” The Alcalde, September 1, 2018, Google Books, https://alcalde.texasexes.org/2018/09/the-complete-story-of-dkr-texas-memorial-stadium/.

[24] Luke Henkhaus, “Kyle: The Life And Legacy Of The Man Behind Texas A&M’s Football Stadium,” Texas A&M Today, November 23, 2022, Texas A&M Today, https://today.tamu.edu/2022/11/23/kyle-the-life-and-legacy-of-the-man-behind-texas-ams-football-stadium/.

[25] Jeffrey C. Petersen and Lawrence W. Judge, “Reframing the Collegiate Facilities Arms Race: The Looming Impact of NIL and Conference Realignment,” Journal of Applied Sport Management, 2021, https://doi.org/10.7290/jasm13wlu7.

[26] William Hunt, “Census Bulletin: Population of Texas By Counties and Minor Civil Divisions,” Census (12th Census of the United States, February 4, 1901), Texas Population, U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1900/bulletins/demographic/49-population-tx.pdf.

[27] Sam Rogers, “Census Bulletin: Number of Inhbitants, By Counties and Minor Civil Divisions” (State Population: 14th Census of the United States, 1920), Texas Population, U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1920/bulletins/demographics/population-tx-number-of-inhabitants.pdf.

[28] B.C. Pittuck, “Foot-Ball,” The Battalion, January 1894, 1 edition.

[29] Sylvia Gunn, “Tips, Kern,” in Handbook of Texas (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, July 14, 2017), Texas State Historical Association, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/tips-kern.

[30] Blair and Wang, “The NCAA Cartel and Antitrust Policy.”

[31] These divisions are commonly known as the Football Bowl Series (FBS) and the Football Championship Series (FCS). FBS is the larger division, containing the top tier bowl competitions. Inversely, FCS utilizes a bracket system or championship series to crown their national champion.

[32] Howard P. Chudacoff, “‘Earthquake: Board of Regents v. NCAA,” in Changing the Playbook, How Power, Profit, and Politics Transformed College Sports (University of Illinois Press, 2015), 63–82, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt19705m9.8.

[33] NCAA v. Board of Regents of University of Oklahoma, 468 U.S. 85 (1984), No. 83-271 (U.S. Supreme Court June 27, 1984).

[34] Chudacoff, “‘Earthquake,” p. 73.

[35] Chudacoff.

[36] Seifried et al., “The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums.”

[37] Donna Gladden and David Boclair, “SMU Football Team Survives Death Threat,” The Daily Campus, February 26, 1987, V. 72, 98 edition, SMU Libraries, https://digitalcollections.smu.edu/digital/collection/stud/id/5400/rec/26.

[38] The University of Texas was awarded two thirds of the profit after finding the location of the oil. Texas A&M received a third of the profit from the oil fields because it was a public university.

[39] Sally Jenkins, “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out,” Sports Illustrated, November 16, 1992, Sports Illustrated Vault.

[40] Frank Guridy, The Sports Revolution: How Texas Changed the Culture of American Athletics (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2021), https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/321836.

[41] Lisa Maxwell, “Cotton Bowl,” in Texas State Historical Association (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, October 16, 2024), Texas Archive, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cotton-bowl.

[42] Rita Crabbe, “Cullen, Hugh Roy,” in Texas State Historical Association (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, December 7, 2016), Texas State Historical Association, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/cullen-hugh-roy.

[43] John Stewart, “Cullens Break Ground for New Building,” The Daily Cougar, April 1, 1938, 4 edition, sec. News, Student Newspapers and Periodicals, University of Houston Archives.

[44] Gunn, “Tips, Kern.”

[45] Jenkins, “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out.”

[46] Sam Khan and Dave Wilson, “‘I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well’: The Demise of the Southwest Conference, 25 Years Later,” ESPN.Com, December 2, 2020, https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/30424417/i-wishof-well-demise-southwest-conference-25-years-later.

[47] Guridy, The Sports Revolution: How Texas Changed the Culture of American Athletics.

[48] The total operational oil rigs in Texas decreased from 677 to 315 from 1981 to 1992.

[49] Roger Olien, “Oil and Gas Industry,” in The Handbook of Texas (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, January 29, 2022), Texas State Historical Association, https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/oil-and-gas-industry.

[50] Khan and Wilson, “‘I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well.’”

[51] Mitch Lawrence, “SMU Draws Heavy NCAA Penalty - TV, Bowl Games Banned; Football Scholarships Cut,” Dallas News, August 17, 1985, sec. Photos, https://www.dallasnews.com/photos/2013/08/16/today-in-dallas-photo-history-1985-smu-receives-severe-ncaa-sanctions/.

[52] “Former Player Claims SMU Paid Him Thousands during Career,” UPI, November 13, 1986, UPI, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/11/13/Former-player-claims-SMU-paid-him-thousands-during-career/9095532242000/.

[53] “Southern Methodist University Football Scandal” NBC Nightly News (Dallas: NBC, 1987), News Broadcasts, Texas Archive, https://texasarchive.org/2022_00526.

[54] Randy Harvey, “SMU Banned From Playing Football in ’87,” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 1987, sec. Sports, Los Angeles Times Archive, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-02-26-sp-5912-story.html.

[55] The “Death Penalty” levied against SMU severely damaged the program from nearly forty years. It took thirty years for the program to hire a head coach with a winning record (Sonny Dykes, 30-18) and thirty-nine years for the Mustangs to win conference title (2023 American Athletic Conference Champions)

[56] Guridy, The Sports Revolution: How Texas Changed the Culture of American Athletics.

[57] Grant McGinnis, “Dust Settles on Dismissals,” The Skiff, September 21, 1985, sec. News, TCU Digital Repository, Mary Couts Burnett Library.

[58] McGinnis.

[59] Brandie Buckner-Sears, “Alumni Respond to Allegations,” The Skiff, November 21, 2985, sec. News, Mary Couts Burnett Library.

[60] Rusty McCaskey, “Optomistic Frogs Prepare for Season,” The Skiff, August 28, 1986, 87 edition, sec. Sports, TCU Digital Repository, Mary Couts Burnett Library.

[61] David Berst, “NCAA Imposes Penalties in Texas Christian University Infractions Case” (NCAA Department of Enforcement, May 9, 1986), https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/search/miCaseView/report?id=102141.

[62] “NCAA Presents Texas With a List of Alleged Violations Over 7 Years,” Associated Press, March 24, 1987, sec. Sports, Los Angeles Times Archive, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-03-24-sp-124-story.html.

[63] Richard Luna, “Texas A&M Placed on NCAA Probation,” UPI, September 9, 1988, sec. Sports, UPI Archives, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/09/09/Texas-AM-placed-on-NCAA-probation/6562589780800/.

[64] Kent Best, “NCAA Slaps Tech Football with Year Probation,” The University Daily, March 4, 1987, 62 edition, sec. News, The University Daily, Texas Tech University Special Collections Library.

[65] Auston Fertak, “The Break-Up of the Southwest Conference,” Houston History Magazine 10, no. 3 (July 2013): 35–38.

[66] Jim Host and Eric A. Moyen, “Working in an Ever-Changing Environment,” in Changing the Game, My Career in Collegiate Sports Marketing (University Press of Kentucky, 2020), 95–112, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvv417h5.10.

[67] Seifried et al., “The Development of Razorback and War Memorial Stadiums.”

[68] The addition of Arkansas and South Carolina expanded the SEC from ten teams to twelve teams. The conference would not expand until 2012, and most recently in 2024.

[69] Gene Wojciechowski, “Arkansas Joins SEC; There May Be More : Colleges: Miami, Texas, Florida State, South Carolina, Texas A&M; Also Might Wind up in Southeastern Conference.,” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1990, sec. Sports, Los Angeles Times Archive, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-08-02-sp-1412-story.html.

[70] Jenkins, “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out.”

[71] Wojciechowski, “Arkansas Joins SEC; There May Be More.”

[72] County-Based Regions and Markets for Texas (Polidata, 2000), Polidata, https://www.polidata.org/pub/maps/rg2000/tx_reg.pdf.

[73] Jenkins, “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out.”

[74] Host and Moyen, “Working in an Ever-Changing Environment.”

[75] Amy Katz, “The Big Switch,” The Alcalde, 1994-06 1994.

[76] Host and Moyen, p. 103.

[77] “The Oral History of the Birth of the Big 12,” Sports Illustrated, August 16, 2016, Sports Illustrated Vault, https://www.si.com/college/2016/08/16/big-12-expansion-oral-history-big-8-swc-merger.

[78] Amanda Smith, “A&M Moves on to Next Arena with Aggie Muster in April,” The Battalion, March 2, 1998, 101 edition, sec. Sports, Texas A&M Newspaper Collection.

[79] Texas A&M was initially interested in joining Arkansas in the SEC. However, Texas, Tech, and Baylor encouraged A&M to join them in the Big XII due to their legislative power.

[80] Katz, “The Big Switch.”

[81] Seema Chandra, Christof Spieler, and Angelique Sly, “The Death of a Conference,” The Portal to Texas History, December 1, 1995, 1 edition, sec. Features, United States - Texas - Harris County - Houston, University of North Texas.

[82] Host and Moyen, “Working in an Ever-Changing Environment.”

[83] Chandra, Spieler, and Sly, “The Death of a Conference.”

[84] Khan and Wilson, “‘I Don’t Wish Either of Them Well.’”

[85] Khan and Wilson.

[86] Jenkins, “Sorry State: Football in the Southwest Conference Isn’t What It Used to Be, and Texas and Texas A&M Are Looking to Bail Out.”

[87] Katz, “The Big Switch.”